| Sumario: | Background: The potential of Augmented Reality (AR) for enhancing learning has long been discussed, however, existing research primarily relies on media comparisons that provide little basis for robust theoretical development. The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) proposes design principles for learning materials to support cognitive processes leading to learning, which have been shown to be effective in different media, though have very rarely been investigated in AR. Objectives: This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of two important learning principles, that is signalling and modality, on learning outcomes in AR, while examining the potential moderating impact that cognitive‐affective factors caused by the technology may have. Methods: Eighty adults participated in this pre‐registered 2 × 2 experimental study. To test the signalling and modality principles, the presence of virtual signals (absent/present) and the content modality (text/audio) was manipulated between‐subjects during an AR learning session. Declarative and procedural knowledge were measured after the learning session and additionally, learners' motivation and the system usability were included as moderators in the analysis to account for AR‐specific influences. Results and Conclusions: The findings revealed no significant main or interaction effects of the signalling and modality principles on either declarative or procedural knowledge, and motivation and system usability did not moderate these relationships. This indicates that the expected benefits of these design principles may not translate effectively to AR contexts, underscores the complexity of educational AR, and highlights the need for further research to better align instructional design with the unique affordances of immersive technologies. Lay Summary: What is currently known about this topic? ○Previous studies show positive effects of Augmented Reality (AR) on learning, often compared to traditional methods.○Concerns exist regarding the validity of these media‐comparison studies, which are often criticised for lacking theoretical depth.○The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) offers principles that can be applied to learning materials to support learning, also in AR contexts.What does this paper add? ○This study investigates the impact of CTML‐based design principles in AR using virtual annotations (signalling) and text/audio instructions (modality).○It also explores how technology dependent variables (motivation, usability) could influence the effectiveness of these two widely recognised learning principles.○In this study, the signalling and modality principles did not significantly impact the learning outcomes in AR.○Motivation and usability also did not significantly influence the effectiveness of these principles on learning outcomes in AR.Implications for practice/or policy ○The unique characteristics of AR may impact the effectiveness of established learning principles.○Educators should be cautious when applying established learning principles from traditional media to AR contexts.○Enhanced understanding of AR learning environments through future research can lead to better design and effective educational interventions.
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